Effects of Mealworm Frass Application and Zinc Lignosulfonate Foliar Spraying on Quantity and Quality of Wheat Grain

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran.

Abstract

Background and Objectives
Enhancing the quality of food grains is a central goal of sustainable agriculture. Wheat, as one of the most widely cultivated crops globally, plays a critical role in food security. Despite its importance, limited research has examined the impact of mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) frass on wheat plant growth and yield. Given Iran’s diverse soil and climatic conditions, its strong potential for cereal production, and the associated economic considerations, investigating the use of organic fertilizers in wheat cultivation is both timely and necessary. Similarly, the foliar application of zinc chelates, particularly zinc lignosulfonate, remains underexplored in cereal crops. This study aims to evaluate the effects of foliar-applied zinc lignosulfonate and soil-applied mealworm frass on wheat growth, yield components, and the molar ratio of phytic acid to zinc in the grain of wheat.
Materials and Methods
In this study, to investigate the effect of different levels of mealworm frass and foliar-applied zinc lignosulfonate on growth characteristics, yield, element concentrations, and the molar ratio of phytic acid to zinc, a factorial experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The treatments included four levels of mealworm frass (0, 500, 1000, and 1500 kg/ha) and three foliar zinc treatments applied during the flowering period: control (spraying with irrigation water), and foliar applications of zinc lignosulfonate at 2.5 and 5 mg/L. The following growth and yield indices were measured: grain yield, straw yield, plant height, and number of fertile spikes per meter, number of grains per spike, spike length, and 1000‑grain weight. The concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, and iron in wheat grain were determined. The molar ratio of phytic acid to zinc in the grain was also measured.
Results
The highest grain yield (17.5 t/ha) and straw yield (2.75 t/ha) were obtained from the treatment receiving 1500 kg ha-1 mealworm frass combined with 5 mg/L zinc lignosulfonate foliar spraying, representing increases of 43% and 93% compared with the control, respectively. Also, the same treatment also produced the highest 1000‑grain weight (43.33 g) and the greatest number of fertile spikes (335 per meter), while the lowest number of fertile spikes (218 per meter) was observed in the control (no frass, no zinc), which was significantly lower than the other treatments. Mealworm frass increased the molar ratio of phytic acid to zinc, whereas foliar application of zinc lignosulfonate decreased it. In addition, the highest ratio of phytic acid to zinc was recorded with 1500 and 1000 kg/ha frass (21.55 and 21.15, respectively), which was not significantly different from each other, and the lowest ratio (19.97) occurred with zero frass and was significantly lower than the other treatments. Application of 1500 kg/ha mealworm frass increased zinc concentration of wheat grain by 43%, 27%, and 24% compared with the control, 500 , and 1000 kg frass treatments, respectively. The foliar application of 5 mg/L zinc lignosulfonate increased grain zinc concentration by 34% and 25% compared with the control and 2.5 mg/L treatments, respectively. The 1500 kg frass treatment increased grain phosphorus concentration by 81%, 62%, and 37% compared with the control, 500 kg/ha and 1000 kg/ha treatments, respectively. There was no significant difference in grain potassium between the 0 and 500 kg/ha frass treatments. However, 1500 kg/ha frass increased grain potassium by 48%, 41%, and 14% compared with the control, 500 kg/ha, and 1000 kg/ha treatments, respectively. Grain nitrogen concentration was also increased by 81%, 62%, and 37% with 1500 kg/ha frass compared with the control, 500 kg/ha, and 1000 kg/ha frass, respectively. Neither the main nor interaction effects of the treatments had a significant impact on wheat grain iron concentration.
Conclusion
Based on the results of this study, application of mealworm frass and foliar zinc lignosulfonate substantially improved wheat performance and grain nutritional quality. In particular, the combined treatment of 1500 kg mealworm frass with 5 mg/L zinc lignosulfonate foliar spray produced the greatest agronomic benefits. This combination also markedly increased grain concentrations of zinc, phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen compared with lower frass rates and the control. Mealworm frass tended to raise the molar ratio of phytic acid to zinc, while foliar zinc reduced this ratio, suggesting that foliar zinc application can partially offset the negative effect of organic amendment on zinc bioavailability. The highest frass rates produced similar phytic acid to zinc ratios, indicating a plateau effect for that response. Overall, applying mealworm frass at 1500 kg/ha combined with foliar application of 5 mg/L zinc lignosulfonate appears to be an effective management strategy to increase wheat yield and enhance grain nutrient content. In addition, foliar zinc helps improvement of zinc availability despite higher phytic acid levels associated with frass. The results of this study showed that these two fertilizers can be used in wheat plant nutrition programs.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, A.H. and A.G.; methodology, N.M. and M.B.S.; software, A.H.; formal analysis, N.M. and A.H.; writing-original draft preparation, N.M. and A.H., writing–review and editing A.G and M.B.S; project administration, A.H.; funding acquisition, A.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Data Availability Statement
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all participants of the present study.
Ethical considerations
The authors avoided data fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, and misconduct.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

Abdoli, M. & Esfandiari, E. (2014). Effect of zinc foliar application on the quantitative and qualitative yield and seedlings growth characteristics of bread wheat (cv. Kohdasht). Iranian Dryland Agronomy Journal, 3(1), 77-90. (In Persian with English abstract).  https://doi.org/10.22092/idaj.2014.100557
Alloway, B.J. (2008). Zinc in soils and crop nutrition (2th Ed.). Brussels: International zinc association (IZA), 136p. Brussels, Belgium and Paris, France.
Álvarez-Fernández, A., Orera, I., Abadía, J., & Abadía, A. (2007). Determination of synthetic ferric chelates used as fertilizers by liquid chromatography-electrospray/mass spectrometry in agricultural matrices. Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry, 18, 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasms.2006.08.018
Arévalo, H. A. A., Rojas, E. M. M., Fonseca, K. B. B., & Mejía, S. M. V. (2022). Implementation of the HACCP system for production of Tenebrio molitor larvae meal. Food Control, 138, 109030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109030
Askvik, K. M., Are Gundersen S., Sjöblom J., Merta J., & Stenius P. (1999). Complexation between lignosulfonates and cationic surfactants and its influence on emulsion and foam stability. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 159 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-7757(99)00165-X
Bai, Y. (2015). Ecological functioning of bacterial chitinases in soil. Universiteit Leiden (dissertation)
Barragán-Fonseca, K. Y., Nurfikari, A., Van De Zande, E. M., Wantulla, M., Van Loon, J. J., De Boer, W., & Dicke, M. (2022). Insect frass and exuviae to promote plant growth and health. Trends in Plant Science, 27(7), 646-654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2022.01.007
Benedicto, A., Hernández-Apaolaza, L., Rivas, I., & Lucena, J. J. (2011). Determination of 67Zn distribution in navy bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) after foliar application of 67Zn–lignosulfonates using isotope pattern deconvolution. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59(16), 8829-8838. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf2002574
Blakstad, J. I., Strimbeck, R., Poveda, J., Bones, A. M., & Kissen R. (2023). Frass from yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) as plant fertilizer and defense priming agent. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 53, 102862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2023.102862
Cakmak I. (2008). Enrichment of cereal grains with zinc: agronomic or genetic biofortification? Plant and Soil, 302, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9466-3
Febles C. I., Arias A., Hardisson A., Rodrıguez-Alvarez C., & Sierra A. (2002). Phytic acid level in wheat flours. Journal of Cereal Science, 36(1), 19-23. https://doi.org/10.1006/jcrs.2001.0441
Feiziasl , V., & Valizadeh, Gh. (2004). Effects of phosphorus and zinc fertilizer applications on nutrient concentrations in plant and grain yield in cv. Sardari "Triticum aestivum" under dryland conditions. Iranian Journal of Crop Sciences, 6(3), 223- 235. (In Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/20.1001.1.15625540.1383.6.3.5.4
Fescemyer, H. W., Sandoya, G. V., Gill, T. A., Ozkan, S., Marden, J. H., & Luthe, D. S. (2013). Maize toxin degrades peritrophic matrix proteins and stimulates compensatory transcriptome responses in fall armyworm midgut. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 43(3), 280-291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibmb.2012.12.008
Gargari, B. P., Mahboob, S., & Razavieh, S. V. (2007). Content of phytic acid and its mole ratio to zinc in flour and breads consumed in Tabriz, Iran. Food Chemistry, 100(3), 1115-1119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.11.018
Gonzalez, D., Obrador, A., López Valdivia, L. M., & Álvarez, J. M. (2008). Effect of zinc source applied to soils on its availability to navy bean. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 72, 641–649. Https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2007.0099.
Haug, W., & Lantzsch, H. J. (1983). Sensitive method for the rapid determination of phytate in cereals and cereal products. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 34(12), 1423-1426. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740341217
Houben, D., Daoulas, G., Faucon, M. P., & Dulaurent, A. M. (2020). Potential use of mealworm frass as a fertilizer: Impact on crop growth and soil properties. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 4659. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-61765-x
Ikkonen, E. N., & Jurkevich, M. G. (2021). Effect of lignosulfonate application to sandy soil on plant nutrition and physiological traits. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 862(1), IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/862/1/012079  
Jalilian, J., Khade, A., & Pirzad, A. (2014). Effect of Fe and Zn spraying on some characteristics of mungbean using chemical and organic fertilization. Journal of Crops Improvement, 16(3), 725-732. https://doi.org/10.22059/jci.2014.53272
Kalra, Y. (Ed.). (1997). Handbook of reference methods for plant analysis. CRC press.
Kaya, M., Küçükyumuk, Z. & Erdal, I. 2009. Phytase activity, phytic acid, zinc, phosphorus and protein contents in different chickpea genotypes in relation to nitrogen and zinc fertilization. African Journal of Biotechnology, 8, 4508-4513.
Li, M., Wang, S., Tian, X., Zhao, J., Li, H., Guo, C., Chen, Y. & Zhao, A. (2015). Zn distribution and bioavailability in whole grain and grain fractions of winter wheat as affected by applications of soil N and foliar Zn combined with N or P. Journal of Cereal Science, 61, 26-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2014.09.009
Li, K., Xing, R., Liu, S., & Li, P. (2020). Chitin and chitosan fragments responsible for plant elicitor and growth stimulator. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 68(44), 12203-12211. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.0c05316
Li, L., Zhao, Z., & Liu, H. (2013). Feasibility of feeding yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) in bioregenerative life support systems as a source of animal protein for humans. Acta Astronautica, 92(1), 103-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2012.03.012
Malakouti, M., J. (2011). Towards improving the quality of consumed breads in Iran, a review. Journal of food science and technology, 8(32), 11-21. (In Persian with English abstract) https://fsct.modares.ac.ir/article-7-1738-en.html
Martin-Ortiz, D., Hernandez-Apaolaza, L., & Garate, A. (2009). Efficiency of a NPK fertilizer with adhered zinc lignosulfonate as a zinc source for maize (Zea mays L.). Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 57(19), 9071-9078. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf9017965
Mehdiniya Afra, J., & Manavi Amri, SS. (2015). The effects of interaction between the elements phosphorous and zinc are some traits of soybean cultivars of Sari. Iranian Journal of Dynamic Agriculture, 11(4), 309-315. (In Persian with English abstract).
Mikkelson, D., & Brandon, D. (1975). Zinc deficiency in California rice. California Agriculture, 29(9), 8-9.
Motalebifard, R. (2017). Effects of Zinc and phosphorus Levels on Yield, Nutrients Uptake and Zinc Recovery and Agronomic Efficiency in Potato. Journal of Water and Soil, 31(3), 886-899. (In Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22067/JSW.V31I3.54513
Motesharezadeh, B., & Savaghebi, Gh., R. (2012).The effect of balanced fertilization on nutrients’ concentration and phytic acid to zinc molar ratio in Iranian red been (Phaseolus calcaratus L.) cultivars at different stages of seed development. Journal of Science and Technology of Greenhouse Culture, 3(1), 73-84. (In Persian with English abstract) https://doi.org/20.1001.1.20089082.1391.3.1.6.4   
Nyanzira, A., Machona, O., Matongorere, M., Chidzwondo, F., & Mangoyi, R. (2023). Analysis of frass excreted by Tenebrio molitor for use as fertilizer. Entomology and Applied Science Letters, 10(1-2023), 29-37. https://doi.org/10.51847/xBw1ooFqXN
Parzivand, A., Ghooshchi, F., Momayezi, M.R., & Tohidi Moghaddam, H.R. (2011). Effects of zinc spraying and nitrogen fertilizer on yield and some seed qualitative traits of wheat under drought stress conditions. Journal of Crop Production Research (Environmental Stresses in Plant Aciences), 3(1), 55-69. (In Persian with English abstract).  https://sid.ir/paper/182247/en
Poveda, J. (2021). Insect frass in the development of sustainable agriculture. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 41(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-020-00656-x
Poveda, J., Jiménez-Gómez, A., Saati-Santamaría, Z., Usategui-Martín, R., Rivas, R., & García-Fraile, P. (2019). Mealworm frass as a potential biofertilizer and abiotic stress tolerance-inductor in plants. Applied Soil Ecology, 142, 110-122 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2019.04.016
Rodella, A. A., & Chiou, D. G. (2009). Copper, zinc, and manganese mobilization in a soil contaminated by a metallurgy waste used as micronutrient source. Communications in soil science and plant analysis, 40(9-10), 1634-1644. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103620902831941
Rumbos, C. I., Karapanagiotidis, I. T., Mente, E., Psofakis, P., & Athanassiou, C. G. (2020). Evaluation of various commodities for the development of the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 11224. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-67363-1
Ryan, M. H., McInerney, J. K., Record, I. R., & Angus, J. F. (2008). Zinc bioavailability in wheat grain in relation to phosphorus fertiliser, crop sequence and mycorrhizal fungi. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 88(7), 1208-1216. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.3200
Sánchez Jiménez, S., & Lucena, J. J. (2015). Characterization of zinc fertilizers. Adjustment to the European and Spanish regulations (in Spanish). Phytoma, 272, 47–52.
Shewry P. R. (2009). Wheat. Journal of experimental botany, 60(6), 1537-1553. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp058
Shoormij, F., Mirlohi, A., Saeidi, G., Kadivar, M., & Shirvani, M. (2023). Wheat grain quality changes with water stress, zinc, and iron applications predicted by the solvent retention capacity (SRC). Journal of Cereal Science, 111, 103665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2023.103665
Van Huis, A. (2013). Potential of insects as food and feed in assuring food security. Annual review of entomology, 58(1), 563-583. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153704
Verardi, A., Sangiorgio, P., Della Mura, B., Moliterni, S., Spagnoletta, A., Dimatteo, S., & Errico, S. (2025). Tenebrio molitor Frass: A Cutting-Edge Biofertilizer for Sustainable Agriculture and Advanced Adsorbent Precursor for Environmental Remediation. Agronomy, 15(3), 758. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030758
Vitosh, M. L., Warncke, D. D., & Lucas, R. E. (1994). Secondary and Micronutrients for Vegetable and Field Crops. Extension Bulletin E-486, Michigan State University Extension Service, 18 p.
Weaver, C. M., & Kannan, S. (2001). Phytate and mineral bioavailability. pp. 227-240. In: Food phytates. CRC Press.
Welch R. M., & Graham R. D. (2004). Breeding for micronutrients in staple food crops from a human nutrition perspective. Journal of Experimental Botany, 55(396), 353-364. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erh064
World Health Organization. (1996). Trace elements in human nutrition and health. WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, 105-122.
Zahedifar, M., Karimian, N., Ronaghi, A., Yasrebi, J. and Emam, Y. (2011). Phosphorus and Zinc Distribution in Different Parts and Various Growth Stages of Wheat under Field Conditions. Water and Soil, 25(3). https://doi.org/10.22067/jsw.v0i0.9624
Zhang, B., Gu, L., Dai, M., Bao, X., Sun, Q., Qu, X., & Zhen, W. (2024). Estimation of grain filling rate and thousand-grain weight of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) using UAV-based multispectral images. European Journal of Agronomy, 159, 127258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.142608
Zim, J., Aitikkou, A., EL Omari, M. H., EL Malahi, S., Azim, K., Hirich, A., & Oumouloud, A. (2022). A new organic amendment based on insect frass for zucchini (Cucurbita pepo L.) cultivation. Environmental Sciences Proceedings, 16(1), 28, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.3390/environsciproc2022016028
Zunzunegui, I., Martín-García, J., Santamaría, Ó. & Poveda, J. (2024). Analysis of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) frass as a resource for a sustainable agriculture in the current context of insect farming industry growth. Journal of Cleaner Production, 460, 142608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.142608
Journal of Soil and Plant Science
Volume 35, Issue 3
October 2025
Pages 39-56

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics